| Left unit | Sense | Right unit | Relation type | Relation name | Document | Tagger | Area | Notes |
In this paper, an attempt is made to critically evaluate the above outlined trend, from both inherently linguistic and sociolinguistic perspectives. | <-- | An open-ended multidisciplinary approach, developed by Bugarski (1996a; 1996b) and adapted for the purposes of this paper, is tested against the data coming from various scientific fields, such as computer science, quality control and quality management, linguistics, engineering, etc. The analysis of the data at hand - international terms most of which have not yet been standardized in Serbian - indicate that a hierarchy of criteria for evaluating the terms, which are to be fully accepted in a given scientific register, should be organized in such a way as to give primacy to the parameter measuring the international value of terms, the shortness parameter and the monosemy parameter. In all the instances analyzed herein the English borrowings are given primacy over translation and structural calques in the linguistic code which could be labeled as "modern scientific variety of Serbian".
| elaboration | N-S | TERM18_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
Building the terminology of any scientific area is a long and laborious process. | <-- | In the recent past, a trend has been noted, and reported by many researchers in the area of Serbian scientific terminology, of importing borrowings of lexical and larger structural units from English into specific scientific registers, rather that to opt for translations, calques, etc. This corresponds closely to the fact that a consensus has been reached among Serbian scientists of various orientations regarding the status of English as the only language of scientific communication in the last several decades.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM18_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
In today's society there are two apparently contradictory trends: | <-- | on the one hand there is a growing need for harmonisation at international level due to continuous economic, political, social and cultural links and exchanges. But on the other hand there is a recognition of diversity (and the consequent affirmation of individuality) in all areas of human life.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM19_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
This paper looks, on the basis of experience in the standardisation of terminology in Catalan, at the social need for standardisation of terminology. | <-- | Some of the difficulties faced will be discussed, and ideas will be given for approaching this field in present day society.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM19_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
but also call into question some of its basic concepts, such as the one to one relationship between ideas and names, the concept of mastery of a specialist field and the role of standardisation in terminology. | <-- | The basic principles of standardisation, such as consensus between the sectors of society involved, remain fully valid in guaranteeing specialist communication, but in practical terminological work the close relationship which must exist between standardisation and society is sometimes neglected. The danger in this is that there may be a breakdown in the equilibrium required between the certain degree of arbitrariness which is inevitable in a consensus and the actual use of terminology by specialists. In this case, standardisation not only ceases to be effective but also fails to fulfil its purpose.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM19_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
The VOCALL project (Vocational Language Learning for Less Widely Used and Taught Languages) is a project funded by the European Commission under the Leonardo Da Vinci Programme. | <-- | The project is coordinated by Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM23_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
The objective is to build language learning tools for vocationally-oriented learners in the areas of computers, office skills and electronics. | <-- | Focussing on less widely used and taught languages (LWUTLs) including Irish, the VOCALL partners are compiling multilingual glossaries of technical terms in the areas of computers, office skills and electronics and this involves the creation of a large number of new Irish terms in the above areas.
With the help of the Terminology Committee for the Irish Language (An Coiste T?arma?ochta) Fiontar and VOCALL are addressing the terminological needs of both Irishmedium third level education and Irish-medium vocational training.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM23_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
For the translation of legal texts it is absolutely necessary to study terminology. | <-- | In the case of Basque the need is even greater, as our language is not in a good situation in the field of law.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM25_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
This paper is intended to make known the method used to locate and analyse legal terminology in Basque in a complete corpus for a particular field. | <-- | Discarding the methods usually used in terminology processing, we based our research on three points: computer resources, the corpus linguistics and the science of translation.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM28_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
Since legislation itself is the basis of written law and is therefore highly important in legal terminology, we took as our framework for research the whole body of law produced by the Basque Parliament. | <-- | Since the Basque language versions are translations of Spanish originals, we based our study on those originals and then found their Basque equivalents, in the sure knowledge that legal terminology in Spanish is sufficiently well consolidated and set down in dictionaries.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM28_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
This has posed, | <-- | and indeed continues to pose,
| elaboration | N-S | TERM29_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
Ever since information technology first made it possible to store and then process linguistic data, terminology has had to adapt constantly to technological innovations. This has posed, and indeed continues to pose, a constant challenge for the joint work of terminologists and software specialists. | <-- | The design and management of terminological databases pose theoretical and methodological problems (how can a term be represented? Is there a minimum representation? How are terms to be classified?), as well as IT problems (How should terminological databases be structured? What relationships should be covered? What is a dictionary unit?).
| elaboration | N-S | TERM29_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
The design and management of terminological databases pose theoretical and methodological problems | <-- | (how can a term be represented? Is there a minimum representation? How are terms to be classified?),
| elaboration | N-S | TERM29_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
as well as IT problems | <-- | (How should terminological databases be structured? What relationships should be covered? What is a dictionary unit?).
| elaboration | N-S | TERM29_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
Specialists of all persuasions are involved in coining terms, modifying existing terminology, rendering terms archaic or re-introducing discarded terms with new meanings. | <-- | One task of specialists, it appears, is to coin neologisms, introduce retronyms, translate terms, validate terms and, in a rather indirect manner, compile or help to compete terminology collection of their specialisms.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM30_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
For languages used by numerically smaller number of people this indeed is not the case; | <-- | terminology management here is often linked with the politically-motivated, and often emotionally charged, work of language planning.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM30_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
This especially true during the formative years of a child, the early carrier of a novice or a person being retrained; The 'raw material' available in text books, journals, unarticulated past experience, has to be communicated through the agency of terms whose meanings are well defined and used frequently by a specialist enterprise. | <-- | facts, principles, theories, and rules of thumb related to any human enterprise, collectively known as knowledge, are to be assimilated and then applied for teaching, learning, problem-solving etc.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM30_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
This especially true during the formative years of a child, the early carrier of a novice or a person being retrained; facts, principles, theories, and rules of thumb related to any human enterprise, collectively known as knowledge, are to be assimilated and then applied for teaching, learning, problem-solving etc. | <-- | The 'raw material' available in text books, journals, unarticulated past experience, has to be communicated through the agency of terms whose meanings are well defined and used frequently by a specialist enterprise.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM30_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
This paper will discuss challenges encountered, opportunities identified and solutions suggested for managing terminology of specialist languages in multilingual environments where at least one language belongs to the lesser used category on numerical groups. | <-- | Our theoretical framework draws from recent work in corpus linguistics, philosophy and history of science on the one hand and computing sciences on the other.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM30_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
Terminology management, that is collection, analysis, validation and distribution of terms, is crucial for converting information into comprehensible and applicable knowledge. | <-- | Specialists of all persuasions are involved in coining terms, modifying existing terminology, rendering terms archaic or re-introducing discarded terms with new meanings. One task of specialists, it appears, is to coin neologisms, introduce retronyms, translate terms, validate terms and, in a rather indirect manner, compile or help to compete terminology collection of their specialisms.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM30_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
In languages used by numerical majorities, the expensive task of terminology management is underwritten by the expectation that there is a potentially large numbers of people who require and are willing to invest in creating terminology databases. For languages used by numerically smaller number of people this indeed is not the case; terminology management here is often linked with the politically-motivated, and often emotionally charged, work of language planning. The dependence on human beings for terminology management is greater in the lesser-used language communities than say may be the case of other languages. | <-- | The automation of terminology involvement management is not merely a task of writing computer programs, although such and undertaking is onerous in itself. Such an automation requires an understanding of how specialist text is written, how human beings deal with semantics of specialist domains, how discourse pattern change according to the needs of the authors and the readers of the texts.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM30_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
Writings in and about lesser-used languages are not easy come by and it appears that it is difficult to persuade people to undertake research and data collection in these areas. | <-- | Somehow, specialist writing is associated with term 'technical writing', a discourse pattern which in turn is associated with machines and thereby not given the same status as the more abstract task of parsing sentences according to a mathematical model of language or searching for cultural icons in texts for instance.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM30_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
But knowledge processing, a term that can be used for elaborating related activities like education, training, teaching and learning, problem solving and so on, is crucially dependent on the availability of specialist terminology collections. | <-- | This especially true during the formative years of a child, the early carrier of a novice or a person being retrained; facts, principles, theories, and rules of thumb related to any human enterprise, collectively known as knowledge, are to be assimilated and then applied for teaching, learning, problem-solving etc. The 'raw material' available in text books, journals, unarticulated past experience, has to be communicated through the agency of terms whose meanings are well defined and used frequently by a specialist enterprise.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM30_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
In languages used by numerical majorities, the expensive task of terminology management is underwritten by the expectation that there is a potentially large numbers of people who require and are willing to invest in creating terminology databases. For languages used by numerically smaller number of people this indeed is not the case; terminology management here is often linked with the politically-motivated, and often emotionally charged, work of language planning. The dependence on human beings for terminology management is greater in the lesser-used language communities than say may be the case of other languages.
The automation of terminology involvement management is not merely a task of writing computer programs, although such and undertaking is onerous in itself. Such an automation requires an understanding of how specialist text is written, how human beings deal with semantics of specialist domains, how discourse pattern change according to the needs of the authors and the readers of the texts. | <-- | Writings in and about lesser-used languages are not easy come by and it appears that it is difficult to persuade people to undertake research and data collection in these areas. Somehow, specialist writing is associated with term 'technical writing', a discourse pattern which in turn is associated with machines and thereby not given the same status as the more abstract task of parsing sentences according to a mathematical model of language or searching for cultural icons in texts for instance.
But knowledge processing, a term that can be used for elaborating related activities like education, training, teaching and learning, problem solving and so on, is crucially dependent on the availability of specialist terminology collections. This especially true during the formative years of a child, the early carrier of a novice or a person being retrained; facts, principles, theories, and rules of thumb related to any human enterprise, collectively known as knowledge, are to be assimilated and then applied for teaching, learning, problem-solving etc. The 'raw material' available in text books, journals, unarticulated past experience, has to be communicated through the agency of terms whose meanings are well defined and used frequently by a specialist enterprise. Knowledge processing therefore is inextricably linked terminology management which, in turn, is linked with language planning and politics.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM30_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
As an example we can cite the following instruments: LEXTER (Bourigault, 92), AT & Tko Terminght (Church & Dagan, 94), TERMS by IBM (Justeson & Katz, 95) and NPtool (Arpper, 95). | <-- | Their areas of application can be divided into two main groups: information indexing and the making-up of terminological glossaries.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM31_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
In recent years work has begun to develop instruments in several languages for automatic terminology extraction in technical texts, though human intervention is still required to make the final selection from the terms automatically chosen. | <-- | As an example we can cite the following instruments: LEXTER (Bourigault, 92), AT & Tko Terminght (Church & Dagan, 94), TERMS by IBM (Justeson & Katz, 95) and NPtool (Arpper, 95).
Their areas of application can be divided into two main groups: information indexing and the making-up of terminological glossaries.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM31_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
Lemmatisation is linked to morphological analysis and the removal of ambiguities. | <-- | In complex inflected languages poor results will ensue if only the formal aspect of words is dealt with: lemmatisation will be necessary.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM31_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
Linguistic knowledge is also of prime importance in the standardisation of terminology: | <-- | a discrimination between terms must be made, because some of them may form part of longer units.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM31_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
Linguistic techniques are used basically to make the initial selection of terms.
Morpho-syntactic models are usually used, so it is advisable to have the text already analysed or at least labelled. The results are conditioned heavily by the quality of the linguistic tool used. In any event in some projects neither morphological nor syntactic analysis is carried out (Su et al., 96).
Lemmatisation is linked to morphological analysis and the removal of ambiguities. In complex inflected languages poor results will ensue if only the formal aspect of words is dealt with: lemmatisation will be necessary. | <-- | Linguistic knowledge is also of prime importance in the standardisation of terminology: a discrimination between terms must be made, because some of them may form part of longer units.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM31_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
Linguistic techniques are used basically to make the initial selection of terms.
Morpho-syntactic models are usually used, so it is advisable to have the text already analysed or at least labelled. The results are conditioned heavily by the quality of the linguistic tool used. In any event in some projects neither morphological nor syntactic analysis is carried out (Su et al., 96). Linguistic knowledge is also of prime importance in the standardisation of terminology: a discrimination between terms must be made, because some of them may form part of longer units. | <-- | Lemmatisation is linked to morphological analysis and the removal of ambiguities. In complex inflected languages poor results will ensue if only the formal aspect of words is dealt with: lemmatisation will be necessary.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM31_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
Linguistic techniques are used basically to make the initial selection of terms.
Lemmatisation is linked to morphological analysis and the removal of ambiguities. In complex inflected languages poor results will ensue if only the formal aspect of words is dealt with: lemmatisation will be necessary. Linguistic knowledge is also of prime importance in the standardisation of terminology: a discrimination between terms must be made, because some of them may form part of longer units. | <-- | Morpho-syntactic models are usually used, so it is advisable to have the text already analysed or at least labelled. The results are conditioned heavily by the quality of the linguistic tool used. In any event in some projects neither morphological nor syntactic analysis is carried out (Su et al., 96).
| elaboration | N-S | TERM31_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
In this balance preference is given to recall, provided there is a person who can carry out the terminology reduction. | <-- | To obtain a recall of 95% precision is usually reduced to 50%, and for a precision of 85% cover is not reduced even to 35%.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM31_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
A balance must be found between recall and precision. | <-- | In this balance preference is given to recall, provided there is a person who can carry out the terminology reduction. To obtain a recall of 95% precision is usually reduced to 50%, and for a precision of 85% cover is not reduced even to 35%.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM31_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
2. Terminology extraction
It is a hard task to obtain a formal, complete definition of a term, but that is precisely what a major part of this work consists of: defining the characteristics of terms. To obtain technical terms from the corpus a combination of NLP techniques (based on linguistic knowledge) and statistical techniques is usually used. | <-- | 2.1. Linguistic Techniques
Linguistic techniques are used basically to make the initial selection of terms.
Morpho-syntactic models are usually used, so it is advisable to have the text already analysed or at least labelled. The results are conditioned heavily by the quality of the linguistic tool used. In any event in some projects neither morphological nor syntactic analysis is carried out (Su et al., 96).
Lemmatisation is linked to morphological analysis and the removal of ambiguities. In complex inflected languages poor results will ensue if only the formal aspect of words is dealt with: lemmatisation will be necessary. Linguistic knowledge is also of prime importance in the standardisation of terminology: a discrimination between terms must be made, because some of them may form part of longer units.
2.2. Statistical Techniques
In most projects statistical methods have been used to reduce the assumed terms which follow the linguistic model. The methods applied vary widely from project to project, so the simplest idea is to require a minimum absolute frequency (Justeson & Katz, 95), though several probabilistic formulae are generally combined.
2.3. Results
The results obtained are not yet those required for absolutely automatic extraction. A balance must be found between recall and precision. In this balance preference is given to recall, provided there is a person who can carry out the terminology reduction. To obtain a recall of 95% precision is usually reduced to 50%, and for a precision of 85% cover is not reduced even to 35%.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM31_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
The IXA Group intends to develop a tool of this type for Basque. | <-- | The morphological analyser is already being prepared (Alegria et al, 96), the lemmatizer/labeller is almost completed (Aduriz et al, 96) and work has been done on surface level syntax.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM31_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
To that end, basing work on existing technical dictionaries and using statistical techniques, principal models must be obtained. | <-- | We do not yet have any results, but we believe that the model will be wider than the noun phrase. In the choice of technical terms, the case of internal declension may prove decisive.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM31_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
The IXA Group intends to develop a tool of this type for Basque. The morphological analyser is already being prepared (Alegria et al, 96), the lemmatizer/labeller is almost completed (Aduriz et al, 96) and work has been done on surface level syntax. | <-- | While these tools are being prepared, we must work on the modelling of technical terms, i.e. we must reduce their characteristics. To that end, basing work on existing technical dictionaries and using statistical techniques, principal models must be obtained. We do not yet have any results, but we believe that the model will be wider than the noun phrase. In the choice of technical terms, the case of internal declension may prove decisive.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM31_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
The basic idea is to follow Alshawi?s idea in their LDOCE experience and work with English definitions of terms. | <-- | Key words are extracted from parsing such definitions so that literal translation of English key words into Chinese can be achieved. Then the Chinese key word translations are processed in the coiner making use of Chinese morpheme database and Chinese word formation rules. The output will be alternative translations for human experts to choose from.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM32_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
It will consist of a parser, a syllable-based transformer (for transliteration purposes) and a coiner. | <-- | The basic idea is to follow Alshawi?s idea in their LDOCE experience and work with English definitions of terms. Key words are extracted from parsing such definitions so that literal translation of English key words into Chinese can be achieved. Then the Chinese key word translations are processed in the coiner making use of Chinese morpheme database and Chinese word formation rules. The output will be alternative translations for human experts to choose from.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM32_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
The terminology coiner will make use of databases such as corpora of definitions of existing terminology, syntactic rule base, lexicons (technical and general), morpheme database (Yuan et al., 1994), Chinese word formation rules (Lu et al. 1977). | <-- | It will consist of a parser, a syllable-based transformer (for transliteration purposes) and a coiner. The basic idea is to follow Alshawi?s idea in their LDOCE experience and work with English definitions of terms. Key words are extracted from parsing such definitions so that literal translation of English key words into Chinese can be achieved. Then the Chinese key word translations are processed in the coiner making use of Chinese morpheme database and Chinese word formation rules. The output will be alternative translations for human experts to choose from.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM32_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
The theme of this paper is study how to facilitate automated coinage of terminology and make it an integral part of a term bank existing on the Internet. | <-- | The terminology coiner will make use of databases such as corpora of definitions of existing terminology, syntactic rule base, lexicons (technical and general), morpheme database (Yuan et al., 1994), Chinese word formation rules (Lu et al. 1977). It will consist of a parser, a syllable-based transformer (for transliteration purposes) and a coiner. The basic idea is to follow Alshawi?s idea in their LDOCE experience and work with English definitions of terms. Key words are extracted from parsing such definitions so that literal translation of English key words into Chinese can be achieved. Then the Chinese key word translations are processed in the coiner making use of Chinese morpheme database and Chinese word formation rules. The output will be alternative translations for human experts to choose from.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM32_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
In French, too, different suffixes are generally used to create referential and predicative adjectives, | <-- | giving rise to pairs such as familial-familier and infantil-infantin.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM34_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
Examples would be decisi?n presidencial ("presidential decision"), which must mean what is decided by the President, and extracci?n dental ("tooth extraction"), denoting the action of removing a tooth or molar. | <-- | It is obvious that in the latter case the adjective dental is equivalent to the direct object of the verb extraer ("to extract"). In Basque compound nouns are prime candidates for this (hortz-ateratzea).
| elaboration | N-S | TERM34_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
On the other hand, when referential adjectives modify the noun (an object with no argumental structure) the relationship between the noun and the adjective cannot be predicted: | <-- | in this case we find a relationship of field or of ownership, which is shown by dictionary compilers by the periphrasis -ri dagokion.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM34_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
For instance hilo dental ("dental floss") is the floss used to clean teeth, | <-- | and in Basque hortzetako haria would probably be preferred to hotz-haria.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM34_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
On the other hand, when referential adjectives modify the noun (an object with no argumental structure) the relationship between the noun and the adjective cannot be predicted: in this case we find a relationship of field or of ownership, which is shown by dictionary compilers by the periphrasis -ri dagokion. For instance hilo dental ("dental floss") is the floss used to clean teeth, and in Basque hortzetako haria would probably be preferred to hotz-haria. | <-- | Finally, the group known in phonetics as a consonante dental would be kontsonante horzkaria and not hortz-kontsonante.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM34_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
In any event many languages have adjectives which cover all three areas described. | <-- | This can be illustrated with an example from Levi: musical voice, musical criticism, musical comedy.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM34_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
"nominal nonpredicating adjectives" and "denominal adjectives". | <-- | The latter are derived by means of suffixes such as -y, -ful and -ous, so that they take not only their grammatical category but also their predicative nature from their suffixes. On the other hand "nominal nonpredicating adjectives" are by category adjectives but behave similarly to nouns: linguistic difficulties / language difficulties.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM34_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
In English Levi clearly expressed in 1978 the need to distinguish between two types of adjectives deriving from nouns, whose semantic and syntactic characteristics were different: | <-- | "nominal nonpredicating adjectives" and "denominal adjectives". The latter are derived by means of suffixes such as -y, -ful and -ous, so that they take not only their grammatical category but also their predicative nature from their suffixes. On the other hand "nominal nonpredicating adjectives" are by category adjectives but behave similarly to nouns: linguistic difficulties / language difficulties.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM34_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
Referential adjectives always derive from a noun, but often origins and referential nature are mixed and adjectives which are completely predicative are thrown into the same bag as adjectives which are without doubt completely referential. | <-- | In English Levi clearly expressed in 1978 the need to distinguish between two types of adjectives deriving from nouns, whose semantic and syntactic characteristics were different: "nominal nonpredicating adjectives" and "denominal adjectives". The latter are derived by means of suffixes such as -y, -ful and -ous, so that they take not only their grammatical category but also their predicative nature from their suffixes. On the other hand "nominal nonpredicating adjectives" are by category adjectives but behave similarly to nouns: linguistic difficulties / language difficulties. In the case of Spanish, as defended by Bosque in 1989, there are some generative suffixes which are unlikely to derive to referential adjectives (-esco, -il, -oso, -ino) and others which frequently derive to such adjectives (-al, -ar, -ario, -ico). In French, too, different suffixes are generally used to create referential and predicative adjectives, giving rise to pairs such as familial-familier and infantil-infantin.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM34_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
The problems posed for Basque translators by referential adjectives in texts of all types are well known. | <-- | It has often been shown that to find the equivalents in Basque of referential adjectives in neighbouring languages various different paths must be followed (Ensunza, 1989; Loinaz, 1995), though to a certain extent the choice of the resources to be used is usually left to the good judgement, intuition and aesthetic sense of the writer/translator.
Referential adjectives always derive from a noun, but often origins and referential nature are mixed and adjectives which are completely predicative are thrown into the same bag as adjectives which are without doubt completely referential. In English Levi clearly expressed in 1978 the need to distinguish between two types of adjectives deriving from nouns, whose semantic and syntactic characteristics were different: "nominal nonpredicating adjectives" and "denominal adjectives". The latter are derived by means of suffixes such as -y, -ful and -ous, so that they take not only their grammatical category but also their predicative nature from their suffixes. On the other hand "nominal nonpredicating adjectives" are by category adjectives but behave similarly to nouns: linguistic difficulties / language difficulties. In the case of Spanish, as defended by Bosque in 1989, there are some generative suffixes which are unlikely to derive to referential adjectives (-esco, -il, -oso, -ino) and others which frequently derive to such adjectives (-al, -ar, -ario, -ico). In French, too, different suffixes are generally used to create referential and predicative adjectives, giving rise to pairs such as familial-familier and infantil-infantin.
In any event, two types can be distinguished in adjectives which are truly referential due to their relationship with the noun which they modify (Bosque, 1989; 1992; Bosque & Picallo, 1994): on the one hand are those which modify nouns denoting activities or consequences, where the referential adjective is frequently the argument of the noun.
Examples would be decisi?n presidencial ("presidential decision"), which must mean what is decided by the President, and extracci?n dental ("tooth extraction"), denoting the action of removing a tooth or molar. It is obvious that in the latter case the adjective dental is equivalent to the direct object of the verb extraer ("to extract"). In Basque compound nouns are prime candidates for this (hortz-ateratzea). However, we are unlikely to translate decisi?n presidencial as presidente-erabaki: we would almost certainly opt for presidentearen erabaki. Why is there this difference between the "subject nature" of the modifier of compound nouns and the "defined nature" of this element?
On the other hand, when referential adjectives modify the noun (an object with no argumental structure) the relationship between the noun and the adjective cannot be predicted: in this case we find a relationship of field or of ownership, which is shown by dictionary compilers by the periphrasis -ri dagokion. For instance hilo dental ("dental floss") is the floss used to clean teeth, and in Basque hortzetako haria would probably be preferred to hotz-haria. Finally, the group known in phonetics as a consonante dental would be kontsonante horzkaria and not hortz-kontsonante.
In short, the classification of the relationships which may exist between nouns and their modifiers is universal: on the one hand there are modifiers with a predicative nature and on the other those with a referential nature. Within this last group are modifiers of noun arguments and modifiers with an ownership or field relationship with nouns.
These relationships can be expressed through different grammatical categories in one language or another: through adjectives, prepositional or postpositional phrases, compound nouns, etc. For instance the adjective marginal in English is used in a referential fashion in marginal note and in a predicative one in marginal case. In Spanish, however, the difference between these referential and predicative uses is made by using nota al margen and caso marginal. In Basque, the Elhuyar dictionary gives albo-ohar or marjinako ohar for the referential use, but examples of the bazterreko kasu type for the predicative use. In any event many languages have adjectives which cover all three areas described. This can be illustrated with an example from Levi: musical voice, musical criticism, musical comedy.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM34_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
on the one hand are those which modify nouns denoting activities or consequences, where the referential adjective is frequently the argument of the noun. | <-- | Examples would be decisi?n presidencial ("presidential decision"), which must mean what is decided by the President, and extracci?n dental ("tooth extraction"), denoting the action of removing a tooth or molar. It is obvious that in the latter case the adjective dental is equivalent to the direct object of the verb extraer ("to extract"). In Basque compound nouns are prime candidates for this (hortz-ateratzea). However, we are unlikely to translate decisi?n presidencial as presidente-erabaki: we would almost certainly opt for presidentearen erabaki.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM34_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
In any event, two types can be distinguished in adjectives which are truly referential due to their relationship with the noun which they modify (Bosque, 1989; 1992; Bosque & Picallo, 1994): | <-- | on the one hand are those which modify nouns denoting activities or consequences, where the referential adjective is frequently the argument of the noun.
Examples would be decisi?n presidencial ("presidential decision"), which must mean what is decided by the President, and extracci?n dental ("tooth extraction"), denoting the action of removing a tooth or molar. It is obvious that in the latter case the adjective dental is equivalent to the direct object of the verb extraer ("to extract"). In Basque compound nouns are prime candidates for this (hortz-ateratzea). However, we are unlikely to translate decisi?n presidencial as presidente-erabaki: we would almost certainly opt for presidentearen erabaki. Why is there this difference between the "subject nature" of the modifier of compound nouns and the "defined nature" of this element?
On the other hand, when referential adjectives modify the noun (an object with no argumental structure) the relationship between the noun and the adjective cannot be predicted: in this case we find a relationship of field or of ownership, which is shown by dictionary compilers by the periphrasis -ri dagokion. For instance hilo dental ("dental floss") is the floss used to clean teeth, and in Basque hortzetako haria would probably be preferred to hotz-haria. Finally, the group known in phonetics as a consonante dental would be kontsonante horzkaria and not hortz-kontsonante.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM34_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
Referential adjectives always derive from a noun, but often origins and referential nature are mixed and adjectives which are completely predicative are thrown into the same bag as adjectives which are without doubt completely referential. In English Levi clearly expressed in 1978 the need to distinguish between two types of adjectives deriving from nouns, whose semantic and syntactic characteristics were different: "nominal nonpredicating adjectives" and "denominal adjectives". The latter are derived by means of suffixes such as -y, -ful and -ous, so that they take not only their grammatical category but also their predicative nature from their suffixes. On the other hand "nominal nonpredicating adjectives" are by category adjectives but behave similarly to nouns: linguistic difficulties / language difficulties. In the case of Spanish, as defended by Bosque in 1989, there are some generative suffixes which are unlikely to derive to referential adjectives (-esco, -il, -oso, -ino) and others which frequently derive to such adjectives (-al, -ar, -ario, -ico). In French, too, different suffixes are generally used to create referential and predicative adjectives, giving rise to pairs such as familial-familier and infantil-infantin. | <-- | In any event, two types can be distinguished in adjectives which are truly referential due to their relationship with the noun which they modify (Bosque, 1989; 1992; Bosque & Picallo, 1994): on the one hand are those which modify nouns denoting activities or consequences, where the referential adjective is frequently the argument of the noun.
Examples would be decisi?n presidencial ("presidential decision"), which must mean what is decided by the President, and extracci?n dental ("tooth extraction"), denoting the action of removing a tooth or molar. It is obvious that in the latter case the adjective dental is equivalent to the direct object of the verb extraer ("to extract"). In Basque compound nouns are prime candidates for this (hortz-ateratzea). However, we are unlikely to translate decisi?n presidencial as presidente-erabaki: we would almost certainly opt for presidentearen erabaki. Why is there this difference between the "subject nature" of the modifier of compound nouns and the "defined nature" of this element?
On the other hand, when referential adjectives modify the noun (an object with no argumental structure) the relationship between the noun and the adjective cannot be predicted: in this case we find a relationship of field or of ownership, which is shown by dictionary compilers by the periphrasis -ri dagokion. For instance hilo dental ("dental floss") is the floss used to clean teeth, and in Basque hortzetako haria would probably be preferred to hotz-haria. Finally, the group known in phonetics as a consonante dental would be kontsonante horzkaria and not hortz-kontsonante.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM34_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
Within this last group are modifiers of noun arguments and modifiers with an ownership or field relationship with nouns. | <-- | These relationships can be expressed through different grammatical categories in one language or another: through adjectives, prepositional or postpositional phrases, compound nouns, etc. For instance the adjective marginal in English is used in a referential fashion in marginal note and in a predicative one in marginal case. In Spanish, however, the difference between these referential and predicative uses is made by using nota al margen and caso marginal. In Basque, the Elhuyar dictionary gives albo-ohar or marjinako ohar for the referential use, but examples of the bazterreko kasu type for the predicative use.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM34_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
These relationships can be expressed through different grammatical categories in one language or another: through adjectives, prepositional or postpositional phrases, compound nouns, etc. | <-- | For instance the adjective marginal in English is used in a referential fashion in marginal note and in a predicative one in marginal case. In Spanish, however, the difference between these referential and predicative uses is made by using nota al margen and caso marginal. In Basque, the Elhuyar dictionary gives albo-ohar or marjinako ohar for the referential use, but examples of the bazterreko kasu type for the predicative use.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM34_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
In short, the classification of the relationships which may exist between nouns and their modifiers is universal: on the one hand there are modifiers with a predicative nature and on the other those with a referential nature. | <-- | Within this last group are modifiers of noun arguments and modifiers with an ownership or field relationship with nouns.
These relationships can be expressed through different grammatical categories in one language or another: through adjectives, prepositional or postpositional phrases, compound nouns, etc. For instance the adjective marginal in English is used in a referential fashion in marginal note and in a predicative one in marginal case. In Spanish, however, the difference between these referential and predicative uses is made by using nota al margen and caso marginal. In Basque, the Elhuyar dictionary gives albo-ohar or marjinako ohar for the referential use, but examples of the bazterreko kasu type for the predicative use.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM34_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
In short, the classification of the relationships which may exist between nouns and their modifiers is universal: on the one hand there are modifiers with a predicative nature and on the other those with a referential nature. Within this last group are modifiers of noun arguments and modifiers with an ownership or field relationship with nouns.
These relationships can be expressed through different grammatical categories in one language or another: through adjectives, prepositional or postpositional phrases, compound nouns, etc. For instance the adjective marginal in English is used in a referential fashion in marginal note and in a predicative one in marginal case. In Spanish, however, the difference between these referential and predicative uses is made by using nota al margen and caso marginal. In Basque, the Elhuyar dictionary gives albo-ohar or marjinako ohar for the referential use, but examples of the bazterreko kasu type for the predicative use. | <-- | In any event many languages have adjectives which cover all three areas described. This can be illustrated with an example from Levi: musical voice, musical criticism, musical comedy.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM34_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
Referential adjectives always derive from a noun, but often origins and referential nature are mixed and adjectives which are completely predicative are thrown into the same bag as adjectives which are without doubt completely referential. In English Levi clearly expressed in 1978 the need to distinguish between two types of adjectives deriving from nouns, whose semantic and syntactic characteristics were different: "nominal nonpredicating adjectives" and "denominal adjectives". The latter are derived by means of suffixes such as -y, -ful and -ous, so that they take not only their grammatical category but also their predicative nature from their suffixes. On the other hand "nominal nonpredicating adjectives" are by category adjectives but behave similarly to nouns: linguistic difficulties / language difficulties. In the case of Spanish, as defended by Bosque in 1989, there are some generative suffixes which are unlikely to derive to referential adjectives (-esco, -il, -oso, -ino) and others which frequently derive to such adjectives (-al, -ar, -ario, -ico). In French, too, different suffixes are generally used to create referential and predicative adjectives, giving rise to pairs such as familial-familier and infantil-infantin.
In any event, two types can be distinguished in adjectives which are truly referential due to their relationship with the noun which they modify (Bosque, 1989; 1992; Bosque & Picallo, 1994): on the one hand are those which modify nouns denoting activities or consequences, where the referential adjective is frequently the argument of the noun.
Examples would be decisi?n presidencial ("presidential decision"), which must mean what is decided by the President, and extracci?n dental ("tooth extraction"), denoting the action of removing a tooth or molar. It is obvious that in the latter case the adjective dental is equivalent to the direct object of the verb extraer ("to extract"). In Basque compound nouns are prime candidates for this (hortz-ateratzea). However, we are unlikely to translate decisi?n presidencial as presidente-erabaki: we would almost certainly opt for presidentearen erabaki. Why is there this difference between the "subject nature" of the modifier of compound nouns and the "defined nature" of this element?
On the other hand, when referential adjectives modify the noun (an object with no argumental structure) the relationship between the noun and the adjective cannot be predicted: in this case we find a relationship of field or of ownership, which is shown by dictionary compilers by the periphrasis -ri dagokion. For instance hilo dental ("dental floss") is the floss used to clean teeth, and in Basque hortzetako haria would probably be preferred to hotz-haria. Finally, the group known in phonetics as a consonante dental would be kontsonante horzkaria and not hortz-kontsonante. | <-- | In short, the classification of the relationships which may exist between nouns and their modifiers is universal: on the one hand there are modifiers with a predicative nature and on the other those with a referential nature. Within this last group are modifiers of noun arguments and modifiers with an ownership or field relationship with nouns.
These relationships can be expressed through different grammatical categories in one language or another: through adjectives, prepositional or postpositional phrases, compound nouns, etc. For instance the adjective marginal in English is used in a referential fashion in marginal note and in a predicative one in marginal case. In Spanish, however, the difference between these referential and predicative uses is made by using nota al margen and caso marginal. In Basque, the Elhuyar dictionary gives albo-ohar or marjinako ohar for the referential use, but examples of the bazterreko kasu type for the predicative use. In any event many languages have adjectives which cover all three areas described. This can be illustrated with an example from Levi: musical voice, musical criticism, musical comedy.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM34_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
It has often been shown that to find the equivalents in Basque of referential adjectives in neighbouring languages various different paths must be followed (Ensunza, 1989; Loinaz, 1995), though to a certain extent the choice of the resources to be used is usually left to the good judgement, intuition and aesthetic sense of the writer/translator. | <-- | Referential adjectives always derive from a noun, but often origins and referential nature are mixed and adjectives which are completely predicative are thrown into the same bag as adjectives which are without doubt completely referential. In English Levi clearly expressed in 1978 the need to distinguish between two types of adjectives deriving from nouns, whose semantic and syntactic characteristics were different: "nominal nonpredicating adjectives" and "denominal adjectives". The latter are derived by means of suffixes such as -y, -ful and -ous, so that they take not only their grammatical category but also their predicative nature from their suffixes. On the other hand "nominal nonpredicating adjectives" are by category adjectives but behave similarly to nouns: linguistic difficulties / language difficulties. In the case of Spanish, as defended by Bosque in 1989, there are some generative suffixes which are unlikely to derive to referential adjectives (-esco, -il, -oso, -ino) and others which frequently derive to such adjectives (-al, -ar, -ario, -ico). In French, too, different suffixes are generally used to create referential and predicative adjectives, giving rise to pairs such as familial-familier and infantil-infantin.
In any event, two types can be distinguished in adjectives which are truly referential due to their relationship with the noun which they modify (Bosque, 1989; 1992; Bosque & Picallo, 1994): on the one hand are those which modify nouns denoting activities or consequences, where the referential adjective is frequently the argument of the noun.
Examples would be decisi?n presidencial ("presidential decision"), which must mean what is decided by the President, and extracci?n dental ("tooth extraction"), denoting the action of removing a tooth or molar. It is obvious that in the latter case the adjective dental is equivalent to the direct object of the verb extraer ("to extract"). In Basque compound nouns are prime candidates for this (hortz-ateratzea). However, we are unlikely to translate decisi?n presidencial as presidente-erabaki: we would almost certainly opt for presidentearen erabaki. Why is there this difference between the "subject nature" of the modifier of compound nouns and the "defined nature" of this element?
On the other hand, when referential adjectives modify the noun (an object with no argumental structure) the relationship between the noun and the adjective cannot be predicted: in this case we find a relationship of field or of ownership, which is shown by dictionary compilers by the periphrasis -ri dagokion. For instance hilo dental ("dental floss") is the floss used to clean teeth, and in Basque hortzetako haria would probably be preferred to hotz-haria. Finally, the group known in phonetics as a consonante dental would be kontsonante horzkaria and not hortz-kontsonante.
In short, the classification of the relationships which may exist between nouns and their modifiers is universal: on the one hand there are modifiers with a predicative nature and on the other those with a referential nature. Within this last group are modifiers of noun arguments and modifiers with an ownership or field relationship with nouns.
These relationships can be expressed through different grammatical categories in one language or another: through adjectives, prepositional or postpositional phrases, compound nouns, etc. For instance the adjective marginal in English is used in a referential fashion in marginal note and in a predicative one in marginal case. In Spanish, however, the difference between these referential and predicative uses is made by using nota al margen and caso marginal. In Basque, the Elhuyar dictionary gives albo-ohar or marjinako ohar for the referential use, but examples of the bazterreko kasu type for the predicative use. In any event many languages have adjectives which cover all three areas described. This can be illustrated with an example from Levi: musical voice, musical criticism, musical comedy.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM34_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
In this study we shall attempt to determine the resources through which each of these universal relationships can be expressed in Basque and where the limits of each resource lie (at least at the present). | <-- | What types of adjective can be created through adjective generating suffixes? Although many referential adjectives can be expressed in Basque through compound words, this method clearly does not offer forms for all such adjectives. Where then is the limit? Where is the key? Is it in predicative/non predicative nature, in argumental, field or possessive relationships or is it elsewhere? Does definite/indefinite, animate/inanimate, countable/uncountable nature have any influence? Is impossibility influenced by whether the noun modified is an action, a consequence or an object? Under what conditions could we be forced to use loans to translate referential adjectives from other languages into Basque? When do we use noun complements in Basque to replace adjectives in other languages?
| elaboration | N-S | TERM34_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
On the other hand, when referential adjectives modify the noun (an object with no argumental structure) the relationship between the noun and the adjective cannot be predicted: in this case we find a relationship of field or of ownership, which is shown by dictionary compilers by the periphrasis -ri dagokion. | <-- | For instance hilo dental ("dental floss") is the floss used to clean teeth, and in Basque hortzetako haria would probably be preferred to hotz-haria.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM34_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
Terms referring to the Internet are coined and spread at such speed and to such an extent that they have turned into a race against the clock in different languages. | <-- | The formation of new terms goes on at a dizzy speed, parallel to technological advances and innovations in the field of computer science and telecommunications in general.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM38_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
Furthermore, terms can be compiled, discussed and assessed anywhere: | <-- | many Web sites can be found which give glossaries of Internet terms or propose names and even invite users to vote on them.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM38_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
and breaks into general language. | <-- | It is used both by a wide variety of net users (from any or no specialist fields) and by people who read the press or follow the media.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM38_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
This is common in all scientific and technological progress, and therefore characteristic of neology in terminology, but the specific nature of this area confers particular features on neology which must be taken into account. | <-- | First of all the channel through which Internet terms are made known is the net itself. This means that they not only spread rapidly (information on the internet can be accessed almost immediately) but also reach vast areas (all over the world). Furthermore, terms can be compiled, discussed and assessed anywhere: many Web sites can be found which give glossaries of Internet terms or propose names and even invite users to vote on them.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM38_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
Terms referring to the Internet are coined and spread at such speed and to such an extent that they have turned into a race against the clock in different languages. The formation of new terms goes on at a dizzy speed, parallel to technological advances and innovations in the field of computer science and telecommunications in general. | <-- | This is common in all scientific and technological progress, and therefore characteristic of neology in terminology, but the specific nature of this area confers particular features on neology which must be taken into account.
First of all the channel through which Internet terms are made known is the net itself. This means that they not only spread rapidly (information on the internet can be accessed almost immediately) but also reach vast areas (all over the world). Furthermore, terms can be compiled, discussed and assessed anywhere: many Web sites can be found which give glossaries of Internet terms or propose names and even invite users to vote on them.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM38_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
I will do this by discussing various points which influence neology in the field of the Internet. | <-- | Terms referring to the Internet are coined and spread at such speed and to such an extent that they have turned into a race against the clock in different languages. The formation of new terms goes on at a dizzy speed, parallel to technological advances and innovations in the field of computer science and telecommunications in general. This is common in all scientific and technological progress, and therefore characteristic of neology in terminology, but the specific nature of this area confers particular features on neology which must be taken into account.
First of all the channel through which Internet terms are made known is the net itself. This means that they not only spread rapidly (information on the internet can be accessed almost immediately) but also reach vast areas (all over the world). Furthermore, terms can be compiled, discussed and assessed anywhere: many Web sites can be found which give glossaries of Internet terms or propose names and even invite users to vote on them.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM38_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
This leads us to the fundamental point: | <-- | Internet terminology extends beyond the bounds of its specialist field (which by definition is part of the lexicon of science and technology) and breaks into general language. It is used both by a wide variety of net users (from any or no specialist fields) and by people who read the press or follow the media.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM38_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
There is a common denominator in all languages: | <-- | terms are generated in English and come in as loanwords.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM38_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
What lexical creation systems predominate? | <-- | There is a common denominator in all languages: terms are generated in English and come in as loanwords. How do the receiving languages respond to this? How do they deal with Internet terminology? Are all those words which seem to be terms actually terms? Do they meet actual needs for names or do sensationalist, ephemeral terms abound?
| elaboration | N-S | TERM38_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
This paper is intended to look at the challenges faced by neology in terminology at the present time. | <-- | I will do this by discussing various points which influence neology in the field of the Internet.
Terms referring to the Internet are coined and spread at such speed and to such an extent that they have turned into a race against the clock in different languages. The formation of new terms goes on at a dizzy speed, parallel to technological advances and innovations in the field of computer science and telecommunications in general. This is common in all scientific and technological progress, and therefore characteristic of neology in terminology, but the specific nature of this area confers particular features on neology which must be taken into account.
First of all the channel through which Internet terms are made known is the net itself. This means that they not only spread rapidly (information on the internet can be accessed almost immediately) but also reach vast areas (all over the world). Furthermore, terms can be compiled, discussed and assessed anywhere: many Web sites can be found which give glossaries of Internet terms or propose names and even invite users to vote on them. This leads us to the fundamental point: Internet terminology extends beyond the bounds of its specialist field (which by definition is part of the lexicon of science and technology) and breaks into general language. It is used both by a wide variety of net users (from any or no specialist fields) and by people who read the press or follow the media.
What type of terminology is being created? What lexical creation systems predominate? There is a common denominator in all languages: terms are generated in English and come in as loanwords. How do the receiving languages respond to this? How do they deal with Internet terminology? Are all those words which seem to be terms actually terms? Do they meet actual needs for names or do sensationalist, ephemeral terms abound?
| elaboration | N-S | TERM38_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
Written language resources such as lexica and terminology banks are not well developed as learner aids in the case of LWUTLs. With this in mind we have compiled multilingual glossaries of technical terms in two of the given areas (so far) for the languages of the partners, as part of a multimedia CALL package. | <-- | This tool, currently at the prototype stage, which will be identical for all languages of the project, will be marketed as a self-learning tool for foreign-language (FL) learners, as well as disadvantaged learners of their first language (L1), in vocational and professional training in the areas mentioned.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM39_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
The VOCALL project, funded by the European Commission under the Leonardo Programme, seeks to build language learning tools for vocationally-oriented learners in the areas of computers, office skills and electronics, and focuses particularly on less widely used and taught languages (LWUTLs), in this case Irish, Portuguese and Greek. | <-- | Written language resources such as lexica and terminology banks are not well developed as learner aids in the case of LWUTLs. With this in mind we have compiled multilingual glossaries of technical terms in two of the given areas (so far) for the languages of the partners, as part of a multimedia CALL package. This tool, currently at the prototype stage, which will be identical for all languages of the project, will be marketed as a self-learning tool for foreign-language (FL) learners, as well as disadvantaged learners of their first language (L1), in vocational and professional training in the areas mentioned.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM39_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
Documentary legal IT is based on legal databases. | <-- | These databases contain basically three types of documents, corresponding to the three main sources of law: jurisprudence, legislation and the doctrine of authors.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM40_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
The only public database in our country is the SISTEMA ARGENTINO DE INFORMATICA JURIDICA ("Argentinian Legal IT System"), which depends on the national Justice Ministry. | <-- | At present this database has over 510.000 documents.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM40_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
There are public and private databases. | <-- | The only public database in our country is the SISTEMA ARGENTINO DE INFORMATICA JURIDICA ("Argentinian Legal IT System"), which depends on the national Justice Ministry. At present this database has over 510.000 documents.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM40_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
Documentary legal IT is based on legal databases.
These databases contain basically three types of documents, corresponding to the three main sources of law: jurisprudence, legislation and the doctrine of authors. | <-- | There are public and private databases. The only public database in our country is the SISTEMA ARGENTINO DE INFORMATICA JURIDICA ("Argentinian Legal IT System"), which depends on the national Justice Ministry. At present this database has over 510.000 documents.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM40_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
The purpose of this paper is to set forth some of the results of research by working groups at the above universities over the last three years. | <-- | This study is part of the project titled Configuraci髇 morfol骻ica y estructura argumental: l閤ico y diccionario, subsidised by the Spanish Education Ministry and based on a three-viewpoint approach.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM50_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
Firstly, derivation processes based on prefixes and suffixes have been analysed in all three languages, with special emphasis on those cases in which the basis for derivation is a verb and those in which the derivative is a verb. | <-- | Two substantial differences have been found: one is between prefixes and suffixes within Basque and the other is between Basque derivatives and those of romance origin.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM50_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
In the former case the prefix provides specificity for the core | <-- | (the derivative predecir is a more specific version of the core decir, but to say before is, after all, still to say).
| elaboration | N-S | TERM50_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
and the core is the basis of the derivation, | <-- | so that prehistoria is not a more specific version of the basic complement historia but something different altogether.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM50_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
First of all, it has the prefix des-, which has both possibilities, as in the case of the romance languages. In the derivative desegin it acts as a modifier of the basic core egin (the antonym of do), but when we seek an example of the prefix/core complement type (deshojar), desostatu, we find that it is not properly formed.
As regards lexicographic conclusions, the first point which must be stressed in this paper is the difficulty found in forming words such as desostatu. | <-- | Observe that the prefixes ber-/bir ''re' and ez- 'in-/des-'also act in the same way.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM50_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
First of all, it has the prefix des-, which has both possibilities, as in the case of the romance languages. In the derivative desegin it acts as a modifier of the basic core egin (the antonym of do), but when we seek an example of the prefix/core complement type (deshojar), desostatu, we find that it is not properly formed. Observe that the prefixes ber-/bir ''re' and ez- 'in-/des-'also act in the same way. | <-- | As regards lexicographic conclusions, the first point which must be stressed in this paper is the difficulty found in forming words such as desostatu.
| elaboration | N-S | TERM50_A1.rs3 | A1 | TERM | |
The differences which must be dealt with in any theoretical exposition are: | <-- | a) the scarcity of prefixes in Basque as compared to the abundance of suffixes; and b) the fact that this imbalance is not shared by the romance languages.
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To make this easier to understand, remember that prefixes in romance languages may act in two ways: as modifiers of a core, located on the left (refer/rehacer, desfer/deshacer, predir/predecir) or as the core, coming first with a complement on their right (eslomar-se/deslomarse, desfullar/deshojar). | <-- | In the former case the prefix provides specificity for the core (the derivative predecir is a more specific version of the core decir, but to say before is, after all, still to say). In the latter case, the core is made up of the prefix itself, and the core is the basis of the derivation, so that prehistoria is not a more specific version of the basic complement historia but something different altogether.
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Secondly, we must make it clear that the prefix-core/base-complement of the romance languages and English has a corresponding feature in Basque in base-complement/suffix-core. This is an important contribution to modern lexicography. | <-- | Beyond formations of the des1 hoja2 r ??hosto2 gabe1 tu type we must bear in mind the option hostoak2 galdu/kendu1 but especially the forms pozoin-du (en-venenar), bigun-du (re-blancederse), lerro-ka-tu (a-linear), irin-ez-ta-tu (enharinar), lur-rera-tu (a-terrizar), which should be standardised as the common correspondents of the prefixes a-, des-, en-, es-, in- and re- so that more and better resources are made available.
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It can be seen in two ways that Basque has only the first form. | <-- | First of all, it has the prefix des-, which has both possibilities, as in the case of the romance languages. In the derivative desegin it acts as a modifier of the basic core egin (the antonym of do), but when we seek an example of the prefix/core complement type (deshojar), desostatu, we find that it is not properly formed. Observe that the prefixes ber-/bir ''re' and ez- 'in-/des-'also act in the same way.
As regards lexicographic conclusions, the first point which must be stressed in this paper is the difficulty found in forming words such as desostatu. Secondly, we must make it clear that the prefix-core/base-complement of the romance languages and English has a corresponding feature in Basque in base-complement/suffix-core. This is an important contribution to modern lexicography. Beyond formations of the des1 hoja2 r ??hosto2 gabe1 tu type we must bear in mind the option hostoak2 galdu/kendu1 but especially the forms pozoin-du (en-venenar), bigun-du (re-blancederse), lerro-ka-tu (a-linear), irin-ez-ta-tu (enharinar), lur-rera-tu (a-terrizar), which should be standardised as the common correspondents of the prefixes a-, des-, en-, es-, in- and re- so that more and better resources are made available.
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The paper I wish to present at the International Congress on Terminology is based on the contents of a report commissioned by the Directorate for Studies and Information of the Linguistic Policy Department of the Basque Government. | <-- | This report was presented at the first meeting of the Special Committee for Toponymics, dependent on the Advisory Board for the Basque language in Donostia-San Sebasti谩n in November last.
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The first UN conference on the standardisation of geographical names (held in Genoa in 1967) recommended the drawing up of glossaries of geographical terms. | <-- | Recommendation 19A of the conference recommended that a study be undertaken into the nature of the geographical features bearing names in a particular region, and the different meanings of the words used to name those features.
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The latter indicates the general nature of the geographical feature while the former specifically identifies the individual feature in question. | <-- | Examples would be Pe馻 de Anboto, Avenida Ram贸n y Cajal, R铆o Ibaizabal, Alto de la Horca, etc.
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The above definition of a toponym reveals just how important geographical terms are, | <-- | especially when it is realised that standard toponymic studies give two versions (Basque and Spanish) of each term.
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In general terms the generic element can be translated, while the specific one should be left unchanged. | <-- | This would standardise the above terms in Basque as follows: Anbotoko atxa, Ram贸n y Cajal etorbidea (?), Ibaizabal, La Horca gaina (?).
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2. "Standardised" geographical terms may be allocated arbitrarily. | <-- | For instance in the district of Deusto we find avenida ("avenue") used for two thoroughfares which should not both be described thus: "Avenida Ram贸n y Cajal" is an ordinary street, while "Avenida Lehendakari Agirre" is a true avenue.
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3. There is a lack of standardised geographical terminology. | <-- | For instance the Spanish term avenida is translated into Basque variously as ibilbidea, etorbidea or pasealekua, depending on which Town Hall allocated the names. Likewise the Spanish term pico ("peak") may appear as gallur, haitzorrotza, haizpunta, mokorra, mokoa, punta, or tontorra depending on the author or research body involved (DEIKER, Elhuyar, Government of Navarra, Euskatzaindia, etc.).
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However the following points require consideration: | <-- | 1. We do not know the exact meaning of many generic elements: "alto" (given here in Basque as "gaina") could mean "mountain pass", "hill", "peak" or various other things.
2. "Standardised" geographical terms may be allocated arbitrarily. For instance in the district of Deusto we find avenida ("avenue") used for two thoroughfares which should not both be described thus: "Avenida Ram贸n y Cajal" is an ordinary street, while "Avenida Lehendakari Agirre" is a true avenue.
3. There is a lack of standardised geographical terminology. For instance the Spanish term avenida is translated into Basque variously as ibilbidea, etorbidea or pasealekua, depending on which Town Hall allocated the names. Likewise the Spanish term pico ("peak") may appear as gallur, haitzorrotza, haizpunta, mokorra, mokoa, punta, or tontorra depending on the author or research body involved (DEIKER, Elhuyar, Government of Navarra, Euskatzaindia, etc.).
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The above definition of a toponym reveals just how important geographical terms are, especially when it is realised that standard toponymic studies give two versions (Basque and Spanish) of each term. | <-- | In general terms the generic element can be translated, while the specific one should be left unchanged. This would standardise the above terms in Basque as follows: Anbotoko atxa, Ram贸n y Cajal etorbidea (?), Ibaizabal, La Horca gaina (?).
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A toponym or geographical name is a proper noun made up of a specific element and, usually, a common or generic element. | <-- | The latter indicates the general nature of the geographical feature while the former specifically identifies the individual feature in question. Examples would be Pe馻 de Anboto, Avenida Ram贸n y Cajal, R铆o Ibaizabal, Alto de la Horca, etc.
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Before looking in detail at the different areas to be dealt with in the paper, we must define what a toponym is. | <-- | A toponym or geographical name is a proper noun made up of a specific element and, usually, a common or generic element. The latter indicates the general nature of the geographical feature while the former specifically identifies the individual feature in question. Examples would be Pe馻 de Anboto, Avenida Ram贸n y Cajal, R铆o Ibaizabal, Alto de la Horca, etc.
The above definition of a toponym reveals just how important geographical terms are, especially when it is realised that standard toponymic studies give two versions (Basque and Spanish) of each term. In general terms the generic element can be translated, while the specific one should be left unchanged. This would standardise the above terms in Basque as follows: Anbotoko atxa, Ram贸n y Cajal etorbidea (?), Ibaizabal, La Horca gaina (?).
However the following points require consideration:
1. We do not know the exact meaning of many generic elements: "alto" (given here in Basque as "gaina") could mean "mountain pass", "hill", "peak" or various other things.
2. "Standardised" geographical terms may be allocated arbitrarily. For instance in the district of Deusto we find avenida ("avenue") used for two thoroughfares which should not both be described thus: "Avenida Ram贸n y Cajal" is an ordinary street, while "Avenida Lehendakari Agirre" is a true avenue.
3. There is a lack of standardised geographical terminology. For instance the Spanish term avenida is translated into Basque variously as ibilbidea, etorbidea or pasealekua, depending on which Town Hall allocated the names. Likewise the Spanish term pico ("peak") may appear as gallur, haitzorrotza, haizpunta, mokorra, mokoa, punta, or tontorra depending on the author or research body involved (DEIKER, Elhuyar, Government of Navarra, Euskatzaindia, etc.).
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The need to standardise geographical terms, especially toponymic terms, arose during work to standardise place names in the Basque Autonomous Community (BAC), which has been going on at the DEIKER Institute at the University of Deusto for the last ten years. | <-- | The lack of geographical standardisation in the BAC and Navarre can be seen in the anarchical way in which everyday geographical terms are used in maps, road signs, text books, the media, etc. Each user applies their own criteria to geographical terms, giving rise to confusion and inconsistencies.
The first UN conference on the standardisation of geographical names (held in Genoa in 1967) recommended the drawing up of glossaries of geographical terms.
Recommendation 19A of the conference recommended that a study be undertaken into the nature of the geographical features bearing names in a particular region, and the different meanings of the words used to name those features.
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